Yes.  In Canada a number of years ago I caught an 'eye that had a tumor or something near its eye.  I released it and a few minutes later caught it again.

I'm relatively sure I caught the one in my profile pic twice. Look at that gut! I don't catch fish with a gut that big just before spawn. It was 6.9 lb the first time and 7.2 lb the second. This pic was the first. It was December-January so it wasn't full of eggs yet. It's just a glutton. I caught it on a gold shiner War Eagle spinnerbait the first time and a black/blue jig the second, probably 50 yards apart.

 

Aside form these two catches, I've caught a bunch of bass from 5-8 in the same body of water so there's a very good chance I've caught one twice.

 

I also caught one off the same bed two days in a row this spring.

I missed the OP where it says same fish in the SAME DAY.

 

Yes I have. A bluegill on a bed 5 feet offshore. There were maybe a dozen of them visible.

 

I released it and it went right back to its bed. Caught it again, same thing. After that catch he fled from my bait whenever it came near so I left them alone after that. I caugh 7 different fish there.

 

Caught a striper twice off the Delta bank, twice in a day. Was able to get my first hook out of it's mouth. Maybe he did it deliberately  Was in a river so I was really surprised.

I once caught the same tiny pike 3 times on consecutive casts. I was on a fly-in trip and was walking the bank between two lakes when I made a cast into a pool. Got this tiny pike and released him. He stayed right next to the bank and I could see him near my feet in the clear water. I made another cast and as the lure got close, I saw the fish dart out and grab the lure again. After he hit it a third time, I left the crazy little pike alone. 

Caught this guy twice, on the same shoal on a lake in Wisconsin.  First on a white swim jig and another on a bass pro jig.